J. Orthod. January 21, 2022 scottish vs irish facial featurescan gradescope tell if you screenshot. Genetic and environmental influences on growth from late childhood to adulthood: a longitudinal study of two Finnish twin cohorts. Pathol. Scotch-Irish Americans Proc Biol Sci. Forensic Sci. Forensic Sci. There was also greater asymmetry in the nsCL/P group (LEFTY1, LEFTY2, and SNAI1) (Miller et al., 2014). et al., 2015) and Mendelian randomization can provide information on the genetic overlap of facial phenotypes with other genetic traits and the possibility to causally assess the association of risk factors with face development (Smith and Ebrahim, 2003). Res. 1),S126S146. doi: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004224, Claes, P., Roosenboom, J., White, J. D., Swigut, T., Sero, D., Li, J., et al. (2016). 127, 559572. There is evidence to suggest that the effects of some of these substances can also continue post-natally through breast milk fed to the new-born (heavy metals Caserta et al., 2013; Dioxin Rivezzi et al., 2013). Non-genomic transgenerational inheritanceof disease risk. 19:1192. doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2011.110, Brinkley, J. F., Fisher, S., Harris, M. P., Holmes, G., Hooper, J. E., Jabs, E. W., et al. facial Biol. What is considered rude in Ireland? 8:e1002932. Specific facial features which were taken into account by the software included nose width and length, lip thickness and hairline. J. Craniofac. The fusion between the facial processes depends on a series of events involving cell migration, growth, adhesion, differentiation and apoptosis. LH and SR wrote the section Estimating Identity. If they did a thousand plus years ago, they dont really do so any more because the peoples of the British Isles have been mixing and breeding with PLoS Comput. Robinson, M. R., Kleinman, A., Graff, M., Vinkhuyzen, A. J. Orthod. Epigenetic predictor of age. PRDM16 is linked to the length and the prominence of the nose as well as the width of the alae, SOX9 is thought to be related to the shape of the ala and nose tip, variation in SUPT3H is thought to influence naso-labial angle and shape of the bridge of the nose, while centroid size (squared root of the squared distances of all landmarks of the face from the centroid) and allometry (relationship of size to shape) have been linked to PDE8A and SCHIP17 genes, respectively, (Cole et al., 2016). doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddt104, Cousminer, D. L., Stergiakouli, E., Berry, D. J., Ang, W., Groen-Blokhuis, M. M., Krner, A., et al. Anat. on the growth of the face, for example, remodeling of the facial skeleton, spatial changes of the constituent parts of the facial skeleton through sutures, condylar and nasal cartilages as well as the soft tissues, neural and vascular networks. doi: 10.1016/j.oooo.2016.08.007, Zaidi, A. doi: 10.1051/orthodfr/2009033. 59(Suppl. Reported shared influences of medical conditions, normal facial variation with associated genes. Forensic Sci. doi: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2015.09.001, Mellion, Z. J., Behrents, R. G., and Johnston, L. E. Jr. (2013). doi: 10.1097/00001665-200201000-00024, Farnell, D. J. J., Galloway, J., Zhurov, A., Richmond, S., Perttiniemi, P., and Katic, V. (2017). Mol. One of the key differences is that the Prince Charlie has more buttons, as well as silk tails on the back. Defining facial shape can be undertaken in different ways but it is important to appreciate that there will be associations with not only with other facial features but also body phenotypes and medical conditions. Irish Facial Features Irish Features 37, 6271. Genet. doi: 10.1007/s00439-016-1754-7, Lippert, C., Sabatini, R., Maher, M. C., Kang, E. Y., Lee, S., Arikan, O., et al. Hum. PLoS Genet. J. Hum. The epithelial precursor periderm is involved in cellular adhesions with associated genes IRF6, IKKA, SFN, RIPK4, CRHL3 all of which are under the transcription control of the transcription factor p63 that influences the fusion process and differentiation of the epidermis (Hammond et al., 2017). 2. Dev. Natl. Natl. It is important to note that the strong association between facial morphology and ancestry means that any correlations may be attributable to fine-scale population substructure. Genet. 15, 335346. Eur. There's also some more darker features in some people, like black hair and brown eyes. Am. Face shape of unaffected parents with cleft affected offspring: combining three-dimensional surface imaging and geometric morphometrics. For example, significantly more women self-report having blonde and red hair while more men as self-report as having black hair (Hysi et al., 2018). Human facial shape and size heritability and genetic correlations. Fr. Science 342:1241006. doi: 10.1126/science.1241006, Barlow, A. J., Bogardi, J. P., Ladher, R., and Francis-West, P. H. (1999). Behav. J. Plast. Common genetic and environmental factors among craniofacial traits in Belgian nuclear families: comparing skeletal and soft-tissue related phenotypes. Surg. Robot 3, 97110. What are Typical Irish Facial Features? Investigating the case of human nose shape and climate adaptation. most beautiful faces The FaceBase consortium: a comprehensive program to facilitate craniofacial research. doi: 10.1016/j.ajhg.2011.12.021, Peng, S., Tan, J., Hu, S., Zhou, H., Guo, J., Jin, L., et al. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.20249, Miller, S. F., Weinberg, S. M., Nidey, N. L., Defay, D. K., Marazita, M. L., Wehby, G. L., et al. Z., Segurel, L., Tung, J. Y., and Hinds, D. A. (2015). 371:20150380. doi: 10.1098/rstb.2015.0380, Hennessy, R. J., Baldwin, P. A., Browne, D. J., Kinsella, A., and Waddington, J. L. (2010). Surg. doi: 10.1136/adc.41.220.613. Most epigenetic changes are transient and not generally heritable. Reconstr. Res. - Disentangling the environmental factors and relative parental biological contributions to heritable traits can help to answer the age-old question why we look the way that we do?. J. Paediatr. Periderm: Life-cycle and function during orofacial and epidermal development. What Do Scottish People Look Like? - Reference.com The influence of asthma on face shape: a three-dimensional study. doi: 10.1093/hmg/ddt231, Field, Y., Boyle, E. A., Telis, N., Gao, Z., Gaulton, K. J., Golan, D., et al. 4, 130140. 2003. Hammond, P., and Suttie, M. (2012). SR, ES, LH, and SL highlighted the shared facial traits. Admixture in Latin America: geographic structure, phenotypic diversity and self-perception of ancestry based on 7,342 individuals. Almond-shaped, heavy eyes are characteristic of Cherokee Indians, a trait that is due to an extra fold in the eyelid. Biol. (2014). Similarly, it has been hypothesized that maternal smoking may influence facial morphology and be a risk factor for cleft lip and palate (Xuan et al., 2016) with DNA methylation a possible mediator (Armstrong et al., 2016). Nat. doi: 10.1002/ajmg.a.31760. This was proved to be the case through a 2012 study conducted by psychological scientist Jamin Halberstadt in which participants rated local celebrities as more attractive than morphed or averaged photos of different celebrity facial features. Difference Between Scottish and Irish Anthropometric measurements of the facial framework in adulthood: age-related changes in eight age categories in 600 healthy white North Americans of European ancestry from 16 to 90 years of age. Am. Transgenerational epigenetics and brain disorders. E LBP. Phenotypic abnormalities: terminology and classification. Future, environmental epigenetic studies will show whether particular chemicals map to corresponding sensitive genomic regions. Surg. Irish doi: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2004.06.037, Kayser, M. (2015). Genet. PLoS Genet. Med. Res. Biol. Recognition of distinctive facial and lip features such as grooves, nodules, lip demarcation lines has also been reported (Merks et al., 2003; Wilson et al., 2013). Indeed, modern day Latin Americans have mixed African, European and Native American ancestry, with genetic admixture highly predictive of physical appearance. Eye width and ear nasion distance and nasion -zygoma eyes distances are linked to C5orf50. Perception of health from facial cues. Facial morphological differences relating to ancestry are well-characterized when comparing individuals from distinct populations, but distinct differences remain even within more ancestrally homogeneous populations. Normal facial development is dependent on Cranial Neural Crest Cells and correctly spatially positioned and differentiated tissues and structures that influence the shape and morphological features of the face. (2017). The limited evidence for genetic correlation between facial and other traits has been reported in Table 3. Breast 16, 137145. (2016). 23, 44524464. doi: 10.1016/j.jcms.2010.12.005, Pound, N., Lawson, D. W., Toma, A. M., Richmond, S., Zhurov, A. I., and Penton-Voak, I. S. (2014). doi: 10.1038/ejhg.2013.289, Howe, L. J., Lee, M. K., Sharp, G. C., Smith, G. D., St Pourcain, B., Shaffer, J. R., et al. Mol. doi: 10.1006/jhev.2000.0403, Jablonski, N. G., and Chaplin, G. (2010). 33:245. doi: 10.1542/peds.2015-4256. Genet. The important link between facial variation and nsCL/P is highlighted by a study comparing facial morphologies (linked to genes) of children with nsCL/P and unaffected relatives. Res. Genet. (2018a). (2010). Am. Sci. TABLE 3. Noggin and retinoic acid transform the identity of avian facial prominences. But light eyes and freckles are much more common. Feeling a bit down, have a cup of tea. To quantify facial features, landmarks have been traditionally used, taken either directly from the face or derived from photographs or radiographs. Nature 461, 199205. (2014). Heritability maps of human face morphology through large-scale automated three-dimensional phenotyping. Three-dimensional assessment of functional change following Class 3 orthognathic correctiona preliminary report. Am. WebLike its Gaelic cousin, both are Indo-European languages, but Irish is actually a language unto its own. (2016). Pflugers. Twin studies suggest that 7281% of the variation of height in boys and 6586% in girls is due to genetic differences with the environment explaining 523% of the variation (Jelenkovic et al., 2011). Scottish 50, 652656. Am. (2014, 2018) provide efficient and valid analyses and arguably more importantly, visual linkages between genetic variants and global shape. The developing fetus may be subject to adverse environments at home, in the workplace or through lifestyle activities (smoking, alcohol and drug intake, allergens, paint, pest/weed control, heavy metals, cleaning, body products such as perfumes and creams). 75, 264281. Genet. There was reduced facial convexity (SNAI1), obtuse nasolabial angles, more protrusive chins (SNAI1, IRF6, MSX1, MAFB), increased lower facial heights (SNAI1), thinner and more retrusive lips and more protrusive foreheads (ABCA4-ARHGAP29, MAFB) in the nsCL/P relatives compared to controls. 17, 21982206. Parsons, T. E., Downey, C. M., Jirik, F. R., Hallgrimsson, B., and Jamniczky, H. A. What Do Irish People Look Like (2012). Medical Image Understanding and Analysis. Historically, craniofacial genetic research has understandably focused on identifying the causes of craniofacial anomalies and it has only been within the last 10 years, that there has been a drive to detail the biological basis of normal-range facial variation. doi: 10.1111/j.1601-6343.2007.00386.x, Marcucio, R., Hallgrimsson, B., and Young, N. M. (2015). The gene regulatory systems are complex and numerous and detailing these regulatory mechanisms has been the goal of the NIH Roadmap Epigenomics Project whereby next generation sequencing technologies (e.g., ChiP seq) are employed to map DNA methylation, histone modifications, chromatin accessibility in a variety of research media such as, animal models (mouse, chicken, zebrafish, frog, and primates) and stem cells and regulated human fetal tissues (Hochheiser et al., 2011; Roosenboom et al., 2016; Van Otterloo et al., 2016). doi: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2007.01.037, Kau, C. H., Richmond, S., Incrapera, A., English, J., and Xia, J. J. Comparison of three-dimensional surface-imaging systems. A spatially-dense regression study of facial form and tissue depth: towards an interactive tool for craniofacial reconstruction. louiseber 5 yr. ago. (2005). They just released a fascinating study which aligns many pictures of individuals from every country and created composite images of what the average face would look like. Curr. Molecular studies have shown that the growth, structure and patternation of the facial primordia is controlled by a series of complex interactions that involves many factors such as fibroblast growth factors, sonic hedgehog proteins, bone morphogenetic proteins, homeobox genes Barx1 and Msx1, the distal-less homeobox (Dlx) genes, and local retinoic acid gradients (Barlow et al., 1999; Hu and Helms, 1999; Lee et al., 2001; Ashique et al., 2002; Mossey et al., 2009; Marcucio et al., 2015; Parsons et al., 2015). Am. Genetics of cleft lip and palate: syndromic genes contribute to the incidence of non-syndromic clefts. Slinte - Wikipedia (2012). This includes high cheekbones, a bent nose, reddish brown skin tone and coarse, dark hair. There are many published norms for different racial/population groups used to identify individuals who fall within the normal range and identify any facial dysmorphologies. Non-syndromic cleft lip/palate (nsCL/P) is a birth defect with a complex etiology, primarily affecting the upper lip and palate (Mossey et al., 2009; Dixon et al., 2011). There were subtle differences between males and females in relation to the relative prominence of the lips, eyes, and nasal bridges including minor facial asymmetries (Toma et al., 2008, 2012; Wilson et al., 2013; Abbas et al., 2018). 41, 161176. (2014). Approaching ethical, legal and social issues of emerging forensic DNA phenotyping (FDP) technologies comprehensively: reply to Forensic DNA phenotyping: predicting human appearance from crime scene material for investigative purposes by Manfred Kayser. This initiative has been facilitated by the availability of low-cost hi-resolution three Dev. (2007). Historically, craniofacial genetic research has understandably focused on identifying the causes of craniofacial anomalies and it has only been within the last 10 years, that there has been a drive to detail the biological basis of normal-range facial variation. Epigenetic processes are particularly relevant to craniofacial phenotypes because of the general importance of epigenetic gene regulation during embryonic development (Reik, 2007) and their specific role in neural crest development (Hu et al., 2014). The HIrisPlex-S system for eye, hair and skin colour prediction from DNA: introduction and forensic developmental validation. (2012). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. doi: 10.1179/14653121042885, Popat, H., Richmond, S., Marshall, D., and Rosin, P. L. (2012). A 3D morphometric perspective for facial gender analysis and classification using geodesic path curvature features. Genetic and environmental contributions to facial morphological variation: a 3D population-based twin study. - Highlighting what is known about shared facial traits, medical conditions and genes. Genet. Scots also have pale complexions and blue eyes. The final difference between Scotch and Irish whiskey is the taste. doi: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2011.02.033, Hopman, S. M., Merks, J. H., Suttie, M., Hennekam, R. C., and Hammond, P. (2014). Nature 447:425. doi: 10.1038/nature05918, Relton, C. L., and Davey Smith, G. (2012). (1996). 115, 561597. J. Med. A comparison of the prevalence of prenatal alcohol exposure obtained via maternal self-reports versus meconium testing: a systematic literature review and meta-analysis. doi: 10.1111/j.1601-6343.2009.01462.x, Weiner, J. S. (1954). Facial masculinity does not appear to be a condition-dependent male ornament in humans and does not reflect MHC heterozygosity. Gene association with regionalized facial features in normal populations. bioRxiv, Gibney, E., and Nolan, C. (2010). J. Orthod. Acquiring as much information as possible in relation known genetic additive effects, environmental factors and previous medical histories of family members (Grandparents, parents and offspring) will provide further insights into facial relatedness. A systematic review and meta-analyses. Sci. 67, 261268. Int. The genome is comprised of 3.2 billion nucleotides wrapped in octomeric units of histones (chromatin). A novel strategy for forensic age prediction by DNA methylation and support vector regression model. 32, 122. doi: 10.1016/S0889-5406(94)70038-9, Popat, H., Richmond, S., and Drage, N. A. (2011). Irish Facial Features Caserta, D., Graziano, A., Lo Monte, G., Bordi, G., and Moscarini, M. (2013). (2007). Comparison of Irish, Manx, and Scottish Gaelic Contrastingly, previous estimates suggest that antero-posterior face height, mandibular body length, ramus height, upper vermillion height, nasal width and maxillary protrusion are more strongly influenced by environmental factors (Jelenkovic et al., 2010; Djordjevic et al., 2016; Sidlauskas et al., 2016; Cole et al., 2017; Tsagkrasoulis et al., 2017). PLoS Genet. The faces are narrow, you might say hollow. 12:167. doi: 10.1038/nrg2933, Djordjevic, J., Jadallah, M., Zhurov, A. I., Toma, A. M., and Richmond, S. (2013a). doi: 10.3390/ijerph10115953. Facial features can be broadly characterized in terms of the size and shape of the whole face and/or its component parts (e.g., big/small head; short/long and wide/thin face, prominent or retrusive chin). Improved facial outcome assessment using a 3D anthropometric mask. A., Mattern, B. C., Claes, P., McEcoy, B., Hughes, C., and Shriver, M. D. (2017). WebScotch-Irish (or Scots-Irish) Americans are American descendants of Ulster Protestants who emigrated from Ulster in northern Ireland to America during the 18th and 19th centuries, whose ancestors had originally migrated to Ireland mainly from the Scottish Lowlands and Northern England in the 17th century. (2014a). 3:e002910. Robot 6, 422430. Sci. LH and AZ wrote the section Environmental Influences. What does a (stereo)typical English/Welsh/Scottish/Irish person bioRxiv. Cell Rep. 23, 15811597. doi: 10.1007/s00414-012-0788-1, Khan, M. F. J., Little, J., Mossey, P. A., Steegers-Theunissen, R. P., Autelitano, L., Lombardo, I., et al. Am. The development of the face involves a coordinated complex series of embryonic events. 214, 291302. (2002). Modifications to chromatin through methylation, acetylation, phosphorylation or other processes are known to influence gene expression. (2001). A., White, J. D., Mattern, B. C., Liebowitz, C. R., Puts, D. A., Claes, P., et al. Standards from birth to maturity for height, weight, height velocity, and weight velocity: British children, 1965. Nat. MSc thesis, Cardiff University, Cardiff. Trans. Low alcohol consumption and pregnancy and childhood outcomes: time to change guidelines indicating apparently safe levels of alcohol during pregnancy? Int. However, it is important to note that stochastic chance events such as facial trauma, infections, burns, tumors, irradiation and surgical procedures can all have a significant impact on facial development and consequently facial morphology. J. Hum. These landmarks are defined by identifiable/describable facial features, e.g., nasion, inner/outer canthi, commissures that can generate Euclidean distances, angles, and ratios (Farkas et al., 2002, 2004, 2005). Effects of nicotine during pregnancy: human and experimental evidence. Oral Surg. Int. Sharp, G. C., Arathimos, R., Reese, S. E., Page, C. M., Felix, J., Kpers, L. K., et al. However, to date one study has indicated that maternal smoking may interact with the GRID2 and ELAVL2 genes resulting in cleft lip and palate (Beaty et al., 2013). Genet. Difference Between Scottish and Irish Prevention may be challenging (other than continually improving environmental conditions and reducing exposure to potential epigenetic factors) as facial development occurs very early in gestation during a period whereby the mother is often unaware she is pregnant. Cha, S., Lim, J. E., Park, A. Y., Do, J. H., Lee, S. W., Shin, C., et al. 39, 57106. J. Neuroradiol. 227, 474486. Presumably because of frequent consanguineous marriages, later Habsburg rulers often had extreme facial phenotypes such as the characteristic Habsburg jaw (mandibular prognathism). These transcriptional factors may be limited to detail the precise facial shape or can be quickly activated in rapid periods of growth and development. Sci. Three-dimensional analysis of facial morphology surface changes in untreated children from 12 to 14 years of age. clinical study on temporomandibular joint ankylosis in children. This approach may be appropriate for unique facial characteristics but is more challenging when one or more genes are associated with the variation of facial phenotype (e.g., prominence of the nasal bridge or length of the nose, hair and eye color/tones). Development 126, 48734884. 34, 22332240. [Epub ahead of print]. Int. Rep. 5:17788. doi: 10.1038/srep17788, Xuan, Z., Zhongpeng, Y., Yanjun, G., Jiaqi, D., Yuchi, Z., Bing, S., et al. The dimorphic differences appear to follow similar patterns in different ethnic groups (Farnell et al., 2017). Three-dimensional imaging methods for quantitative analysis of facial soft tissues and skeletal morphology in patients with orofacial clefts: a systematic review. Epigenetics refers to mitotically (and perhaps, controversially meiotically) heritable changes in gene expression which are not explained by changes to the DNA base-pair sequence. Facial fluctuating asymmetry is not associated with childhood ill-health in a large British cohort study. doi: 10.1111/ocr.12012, Djordjevic, J., Lawlor, D. A., Zhurov, A. I., Toma, A. M., Playle, R., and Richmond, S. (2013b). Epigenet 2:dvw020. However, a small proportion of epigenetic changes are transgenerational (Rachdaoui and Sarkar, 2014). Genome-wide association studies (GWAS) have investigated the association between normal facial variation and millions of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Genet. (2018). In addition, the individual facial traits have yielded impressive levels of significance using a relatively small number of subjects (Evans, 2018). Scottish accent vs Irish accent (funny Public Health 10, 59535970. The athletic heroes were replaced by young Irish men of lean build and medium height. In addition, there is evidence of pleiotropy, quantitative phenotypes and Mendelian traits all influencing multiple phenotypes suggesting a large number of loci contribute additively to facial variation. 3. The role of enhancers modifying histones, chromatin states are key for normal range craniofacial development and relative position of the various craniofacial tissues. doi: 10.1016/j.jchb.2009.10.003, Joubert, B. R., Felix, J. F., Yousefi, P., Bakulski, K. M., Just, A. C., Breton, C., etal. The timing, vectors and duration of surges in facial growth tend to be different for males and females and between populations contributing to overall facial variation (Kau et al., 2010; Hopman et al., 2014; Richmond R.C. Biol. doi: 10.1007/s00266-001-0033-7, Lee, M. K., Shaffer, J. R., Leslie, E. J., Orlova, E., Carlson, J. C., Feingold, E., et al. Nose shape and climate. doi: 10.1038/ng.3211, Carels, C., Van Cauwenberghe, N., Savoye, I., Willems, G., Loos, R., Derom, C., et al. Head Face Med. De Greef, S., Claes, P., Vandermeulen, D., Mollemans, W., Suetens, P., and Willems, G. (2006). Up for the craic the craic is nothing but mighty with us. The disruption of neuro-facial developmental and maturational processes can lead to widespread and long-lasting abnormalities in central nervous system structure and functions and some of these disturbances will also be accompanied with subtle differences in facial features (Hennessy et al., 2010). 2),89628968. Genetic mapping reveals ancestry between Ireland & Scotland Genet. 46, 753758. Couldn't necessarily say what exactly it is but yeah, but not Pharmacol. The prevalence of lip vermilion morphological traits in a 15-year-old population. Genet. Theyre both made up of fresh, high-quality ingredients that are combined to create hearty dishes. It is important to identify early life exposures (particularly conception to birth) that may influence later life health outcomes. (2014). 9:63. doi: 10.1186/s13148-017-0362-2, Shi, M., Wehby, G. L., and Murray, J. C. (2008). Acad. AJNR Am. Endogenous bone morphogenetic proteins regulate outgrowth and epithelial survival during avian lip fusion. Another mechanism via which environmental influences can affect facial traits is natural selection, where certain facial traits may have beneficial effects on reproductive fitness. The biologic significance of the divine proportion and Fibonacci series. Acad. 268, 3944. During the pubertal growth period (918 years) facial images should be captured more frequently and if studying pubertal influences facial images should be captured at least every 6 months. Epigenetic regulation of gene expression: how the genome integrates intrinsic and environmental signals. Visualizing and automatic detection of facial phenotypes and determining their prevalence in population groups will facilitate case-control evaluations to determine genetic variants. These were the most native Irish traditional folk dances. Cleft lip and palate: understanding genetic and environmental influences. Sci. Variations of this toast include slinte mhaith "good health" in Irish ( mhaith being the lenited form of maith "good"). (2018b). Disruptions in the fusion of the facial processes may result in complete or partial clefts of the face, lip and/or palate. Orthod. All authors actively participated in editing of the manuscript. One possibility is that these variants may influence facial phenotypes through gene regulation pathways involving epigenetic processes. 130, 556559. doi: 10.1016/j.ajodo.2013.01.019, Menezes, R., and Vieira, A. R. (2008). Association between prenatal alcohol exposure and craniofacial shape of children at 12 Months of Age. Even with relatively long acquisition times for some photogrammetric, MRI, CT, and CBCT systems, facial landmark reliability of less than 0.5 mm can be achieved (Kau et al., 2005, 2007; Liu et al., 2012). J. Hum. Other possible benefits that have been explored include: the fitness advantages of hair color (Adhikari et al., 2016; Hysi et al., 2018), nasal shape and climate adaptation (Zaidi et al., 2017) and the benefits of darker skin pigmentation (Wilde et al., 2014; Aelion et al., 2016). They are roughly the same regardless of language, because of mixed ancestry over a long time. After the ice age, the first hunter-gatherers came wi (2018). J. Med. The assessment of facial variation in 4747 British school children. Understanding the face will explain why we look the way we do a range of normality and abnormality that will be useful in healthcare applications and forensic science. Forensic Sci. Sci. Detection and interpretation of shared genetic influences on 42 human traits. Forensic Sci. Heritability of mandibular cephalometric variables in twins with completed craniofacial growth. Initial Results of Multilevel Principal Components Analysis of Facial Shape. The facial surface is readily visible and identifiable with a close relationship to the underlying cartilaginous and skeletal structures (Stephan et al., 2005; Wilkinson et al., 2006; De Greef et al., 2006; Al Ali et al., 2014b; Shrimpton et al., 2014).